A little less certainty.
A little more curiosity.

FROM THINK HARDER

Introduction

The world is full of disagreements.

We argue about race and religion, gender and taxes, politics, and sometimes even pronouns.

We argue at family dinners, on social media, in classrooms, and in legislatures. We argue because we think these things matter. They shape our lives, our laws, and even our understanding of what it means to be human.

Yet something about these debates is peculiar.

Most of us are intelligent, informed, and sincere. Some of us even have a sense of humor.

But the arguments, it seems, rarely stem from the surface issues. The debate over abortion, for example, isn't just about an unborn child or a woman's right to choose. The debate about free speech isn't just about words. The debate about taxing the rich isn't just about money.

It's true that the surface-level disagreements are what cause the friction, but it's the deeper-level disagreements—stemming from mostly unexamined assumptions about reality, knowledge, and value—that are at the crux of the issue.

What kind of world do we inhabit? How can we know what is true? What makes something right or wrong? Humans have been trying to answer these kinds of questions for thousands of years.

In Part I of this book, we learn a bit about philosophical analysis—ways of clarifying meaning, uncovering hidden assumptions, and thinking more carefully about the world. If you read the “Origin Story”, then you've already seen how examining an argument can change a conviction.

“The Parable of the Squirrel” sets the stage with a story that demonstrates how meanings and perspectives can make reasonable people talk past one another.

“Intellectual By-Products” introduces a few logical principles and some useful terminology.

From there we turn to three of philosophy's oldest questions:

What is real?
How do we know?
What is value?

These questions may sound abstruse, but they underpin every belief we hold, and they're actually interesting to learn about.

In Part II we put the philosophical toolbox to work, so to speak. We work by example. We examine controversial topics not because they're easy, but because they're interesting, challenging, and more fun to play with. I sometimes reach conclusions that seem definitive—and to me, of course, they are; but the point is not to pretend the arguments can always be settled cleanly. They can't. The point is to make the competing perspectives, hidden assumptions, and trade-offs visible so that you, dear reader, can see if the reasoning really works and decide for yourself. You may know something I don't.

Part II also develops a simple framework for thinking about fairness: treat people by the same rules unless compassion or a relevant difference provides a good reason not to.

In Part III, we take a small step back and catch our breath.

The world is complicated. Human beings are fallible. Our knowledge is limited. But none of that relieves us of the responsibility to think carefully—to think harder.

The goal is not to find certainty. The goal is to make it easier to understand why what we think we believe is actually what we do believe, and to consider why someone else might see the world differently.

FROM THE ORIGIN STORY

Why This Book?

An excerpt from the opening section of the Origin Story.

Like many people, I sometimes find myself arguing with family and friends about the issues of the day. We discuss religion and politics, fairness and taxes—what does justice really mean?

Often I'd spout strong opinions, but with little reasoning, and rarely with any real resolution. What exactly was I trying to say?

This book is my attempt to answer that question.

Many of the chapters that follow grew out of ordinary conversations around the dinner table or late-night discussions in the living room. Someone would confidently assert something that sounded obviously true, or obviously false.

Sometimes the conversations were thoughtful. Sometimes they became contentious. What gnawed at me was the realization that many of us believe things we've never seriously thought about before.

Part of the problem is that often we don't fully understand what we're trying to say until we actually say it out loud. And even then, sometimes we just get more confused.

That's the spirit in which this book was written.

Not to get more confused; to get more clarity.

FROM THE CODA

What could change your mind?

The closing reflection from the book.

When you close this book, choose a belief that you care about. Ask yourself: What evidence or argument could change my mind?

“Proof that I'm wrong” is too easy. Specifically, what would make you change your mind, even a little? What new thing would you have to know or learn? How would life change, if at all, if you had to admit, “I was wrong”?

If the answer is “nothing could change my mind,” then beware—you may have become intellectually rigid.

And yes, this applies to all of us. Half of the views in this book are wrong. I just wish I knew which half!

Changing our minds doesn't mean giving up on everything we know and love. Sometimes it just means we see the world anew—hopefully in a way that allows us to see why others see the world differently, too.